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Insect physiology includes the physiology and biochemistry of insect organ systems.〔Nation, J. L. (2002) ''Insect Physiology and Biochemistry.'' CRC Press.〕 Although diverse, insects are quite indifferent in overall design, internally and externally. The insect is made up of three main body regions (tagmata), the head, thorax and abdomen. The head comprises six fused segments with compound eyes, ocelli, antennae and mouthparts, which differ according to the insect’s particular diet, e.g. grinding, sucking, lapping and chewing. The thorax is made up of three segments: the pro, meso and meta thorax, each supporting a pair of legs which may also differ, depending on function, e.g. jumping, digging, swimming and running. Usually the middle and the last segment of the thorax have paired wings. The abdomen generally comprises eleven segments and contains the digestive and reproductive organs. A general overview of the internal structure and physiology of the insect is presented, including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, muscular, endocrine and nervous systems, as well as sensory organs, temperature control, flight and molting. == Digestive system == An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances (such as proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids) which must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules (i.e. amino acids, simple sugars, etc.) before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The insect's digestive system is a closed system, with one long enclosed coiled tube called the alimentary canal which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal only allows food to enter the mouth, and then gets processed as it travels toward the anus. The insects alimentary canal has specific sections for grinding and food storage, enzyme production and nutrient absorption.〔 Sphincters control the food and fluid movement between three regions. The three regions include the foregut (stomatodeum)(27,) the midgut (mesenteron)(13), and the hindgut (proctodeum)(16). In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax (adjacent to the fore-gut). The salivary glands (30) produce saliva, the salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium behind the hypopharynx; which movements of the mouthparts help mix saliva with food in the buccal cavity. Saliva mixes with food which travels through salivary tubes into the mouth, beginning the process of breaking it down.〔 The stomatedeum and proctodeum are invaginations of the epidermis and are lined with cuticle (intima). The mesenteron is not lined with cuticle but with rapidly dividing and therefore constantly replaced, epithelial cells.〔〔 The cuticle sheds with every moult along with the exoskeleton.〔 Food is moved down the gut by muscular contractions called peristalsis. 1. Stomatodeum (foregut): This region stores, grinds and transports food to the next region. Included in this are the buccal cavity, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the crop (stores food), and proventriculus or gizzard (grinds food).〔 Salivary secretions from the labial glands dilute the ingested food. In mosquitoes (Diptera), which are blood-feeding insects, anticoagulants and blood thinners are also released here. 2. Mesenteron (midgut): Digestive enzymes in this region are produced and secreted into the lumen and here nutrients are absorbed into the insect’s body. Food is enveloped by this part of the gut as it arrives from the foregut by the peritrophic membrane which is a mucopolysaccharide layer secreted from the midgut’s epithelial cells.〔 It is thought that this membrane prevents food pathogens from contacting the epithelium and attacking the insects’ body.〔 It also acts as a filter allowing small molecules through, but preventing large molecules and particles of food from reaching the midgut cells.〔 After the large substances are broken down into smaller ones, digestion and consequent nutrient absorption takes place at the surface of the epithelium.〔 Microscopic projections from the mid-gut wall, called microvilli, increase surface area and allow for maximum absorption of nutrients. 3. Proctodeum (hindgut): This is divided into three sections; the anterior is the ileum, the middle portion, the colon, and the wider, posterior section is the rectum.〔 This extends from the pyloric valve which is located between the mid and the hindgut to the anus.〔 Here absorption of water, salts and other beneficial substances take place before excretion.〔 Like other animals, the removal of toxic metabolic waste requires water. However, for very small animals like insects, water conservation is a priority. Because of this, blind-ended ducts called Malpighian tubules come into play.〔 These ducts emerge as evaginations at the anterior end of the hindgut and are the main organs of osmoregulation and excretion.〔〔 These extract the waste products from the haemolymph, in which all the internal organs are bathed).〔 These tubules continually produce the insect’s uric acid, which is transported to the hindgut, where important salts and water are re-absorbed by both the hindgut and rectum. Excrement is then voided as insoluble and non-toxic uric acid granules.〔 Excretion and osmoregulation in insects are not orchestrated by the Malpighian tubules alone, but require a joint function of the ileum and/or rectum.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「insect physiology」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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